Table 3 Risk factors for diabetes-related loneliness

Demographic variables

Age (year)

[5, 17, 20, 28, 40]

5

0.984–1.031

0.546

72.592

14.594

0.723

Sex (Ref. Male)

[5, 17, 20, 28, 40]

5

0.618–2.324

0.593

93.253

59.282

 < 0.001

Ethnicity (Ref. Non-White)

[28]

1

1.130–1.740

0.002

Marital status (Ref. Married)

[17, 20]

2

0.867–2.281

0.167

48.124

1.928

0.165

Employment status (Ref. Working)

[17, 40]

2

0.977–2.415

0.244

62.742

2.684

0.101

Educational level (Ref. College and above)

[17, 40]

2

1.136–2.309

0.008

0

0.991

0.320

Economic status of the family (Ref. High income)

 Middle income

 [5, 17]

 Low income

 [5, 17]

2

2

1.194–2.921

1.365–7.557

0.006

0.008

0

32.941

0.749

1.491

0.387

0.222

Health-related variables

Multimorbidity (number of morbidities)

[28]

1

0.970–1.230

0.140

BMI (Ref. < 30 kg m⁻²)

[28]

1

0.980–1.480

0.080

Diabetes duration (year)

[17]

1

1.050–1.550

0.016

HbA1c (%)

[5]

1

0.914–1.127

0.779

Cognitive function (MMSE score)

[40]

1

1.751–3.781

 < 0.001

Social variables

Living alone (Ref. Yes)

[5, 40]

2

1.208–9.342

0.020

83.661

6.120

0.013

Previous experience of loneliness (Ref. None)

[28]

1

5.750–9.610

 < 0.001

Social isolation (Social isolation index)

[5]

1

0.719–1.259

0.707

Psychological variable

Depression (Depression score)

[5, 40]

2

1.173–1.274

 < 0.001

0

9.466

 < 0.001