Table 2 Study characteristics-intergenerational relations (n = 22)

Kalavar et al., 2015 [36]

Transnational support of Asian Indian elderly in India: examining patterns of exchanges

Mixed-methods approach, focus group, and survey

Bangalore and Mumbai, India

Investigated the type of support exchanges between generations and the role of communication technology in the intergenerational support process

Transnational care is reciprocal in nature, and that communication technology has enhanced intergenerational contact

Dohlman et al., 2023 [37]

Generativity and engagement in grandparenting activities among older adults in northern Sri Lanka

Cross-sectional study, ordinary least squares (OLS) regression

Living in northern Sri Lanka, both urban and rural residents

The study explored the relationship between generative beliefs and specific grandparenting activity

Higher generative beliefs were positively associated with higher levels of engagement

Ahlin & Sen, 2020 [24]

Only near is dear? Doing elderly care with everyday ICTs in Indian transnational families

Ethnographic, participant observation, and interviews

Multi-sited fieldwork in Kerala

How information and communication technologies support in reformulation of care for older parents in India

ICTs bridge geographic gaps and make people feel as if they were in the same room even while physically apart

Gautam et al., 2011 [38]

Social interactions and depressive symptoms among community-dwelling older adults in Nepal: a synergic effect model

Cross-sectional face-to-face interview, multiple regression models

Older adults living in an urban area of Nepal

This study examines the synergic effects of intergenerational solidarity (emotional and instrumental support exchange and anticipated support) on depression of older adults

Emotional support exchange with the son diminished the positive association between conflict with the son and depression

Amin, Iftekhar, 2017 [25]

Perceptions of successful ageing among older adults in Bangladesh: an exploratory study

Interviews using in-depth semi-structured questionnaires

Bangladesh

To analyse older adults’ definitions of successful ageing in Bangladesh

Successful ageing is multidimensional such as adaptations to one’s changing body, financial security, religiosity and age identity, and social engagement

Niraula, Bhanu B., 1995 [39]

Old-age security and inheritance in Nepal: motives versus means

The data were taken from the Benighat Survey

Hill district of Central Nepal about 75 km south-west of Kathmandu

Synthesise expectations of old-age support in rural Nepal

Intergenerational transfer of property to the younger generation, especially among sons, provides a mechanism for old age support

Lamb, Sarah, 2005 [40]

Cultural and moral values surrounding care and (in)dependence in late life: reflections from India in an era of global modernity

Qualitative ethnographic fieldwork: interviews and observations, case studies

Old-age homes in and around Kolkata city

The study examines Indians’ perspectives on older care and the significant changes by exploring how beliefs and practices

speak about deep embedded cultural-moral visions of the relationship

The NGOs and government should support social security for older adults. Besides, the older adults should also change their mind-set about their children that they will provide support in their old age

Chandra Sekaran et al., (2021) [41]

‘No, you should not beat our child because he will become aggressive:’ applying a multi-method approach to explore intergenerational transmission of parenting practices

Qualitative methods: in-depth interviews and observations, case studies. Thematic approach was used to interpret the results

The study was conducted at Udupi and Brahmavara taluks of Udupi, a coastal district in southern India

To explore and gain insight into the parenting experiences of participants from two generations and the possible transmission across the two generations

Family has been the central to Indian society and interdependence, and dyadic relations between older parents and adult children were fundamental to intergenerational relations

Jothikaran et al. (2020) [42]

Older adults in traditional and modern living arrangements in southern India: the importance of maintaining a sense of belonging and positive intergenerational exchanges

The study adopted qualitative approach

Older participants living in the same household with married children in two South Indian states

To explore the perspectives and everyday experiences of older persons living in different arrangements in India

Older adults perceive social, cultural, and emotional attachment as long as they feel that their offspring adhered to traditional values

Goldstein et al., 1983 [43]

Social and economic forces affecting intergenerational relations in extended families in a third-world country: a cautionary tale from South Asia

Qualitative: An open-ended in-depth interview was conducted

Bistatol neighbourhood of Kathmandu in Nepal

To explore the impact of social and economic changes on the family and elderly people in urban Nepal

The impact of changing economic and filial structure deeply influenced the care system; older parents are not getting love, attention, and respect from their children

Jothikaran et al., 2023 [44]

Views and experiences of adult children concerning intergenerational relationships with their older kin: a qualitative study from South India

Qualitative interpretative approach

Two of the South Indian states (one a well-performing state, Tamil Nadu, and the other a poorly performing state, Telangana)

To explore the experiences of adult children concerning intergenerational relationships with their parents with regard to reciprocity of care and support and the challenges they experience and strategies they adopt to overcome those challenges

Despite changes in work life and complexities, they seem to uphold the cultural values and norms related to providing intergenerational care and support

Abrar et al., 2018 [45]

The emerging need of elder’s institutional care in Pakistan

Qualitative thematic approach: data was collected through semi-structured interview for the collection of in-depth information

Peshawar city for families having the oldest-old family members and Gulbahar town in Pakistan

To establish an alternative care or support mechanism for older adults in Pakistan

There is a growing need to establish an alternative care or support mechanism for the welfare of these socially vulnerable inhabitants in the country

Kalavar & Jamuna, 2008 [46]

Interpersonal relationships of elderly in selected old-age homes in urban India

Qualitative: face-to-face in-depth interviews

‘Pay and stay’ homes in the four cities of Hyderabad, Bangalore, Chennai, and Thiruvananthapuram

To understand the relocation experience of older adults who reside in the pay and stay homes and nature of interpersonal relationships

The social landscape of India is changing. With the rapid proliferation of ‘pay and stay’ homes in urban India, it is clear that there is a movement toward this arrangement

Bardhan, A. (2022) [37]

Family care and its impact on the life of elderly people: a study in Dhaka city

Qualitative: case study method and in-depth interviews, two focus-group discussions

Dhaka city of Bangladesh

The main objective of the study was to explore and understand the relationship between the challenges of elderly people and the nature of family care towards them

The main challenges of later life are poverty, ageism, and abuse of elderly people, which affect intergenerational relation particularly financial support

Chandra, 2017 [53]

Mending Maya: an analysis of ageing and intergenerational connection in Delhi, India

Qualitative: semi-structured interview

Living in an old-age home in Delhi, India

To examine intergenerational connection and understanding and test the effectiveness of implementing an art-based intergenerational intervention called Mending Maya

Intergenerational relations in India are more likely to be successful if it builds on cultural values that emphasise family and community

Gangopadhyay, 2021 [47]

Culture, context, and ageing of older Indians: narratives from India and beyond

Qualitative: semi-structured interview, observations

Older adults living in multigenerational families, old-age homes, widowed older adults staying with their unmarried adult children

To provide an insight into various intricacies and dynamics associated with intergenerational relationships

The older residents continued to expect emotional support from their adult sons despite these expectations, and the older adults had shifted to institutional care home and were putting in their efforts to adjust to this home

Verma et al., 2022 [48]

Experience of well-being: a cross-generational study in India

A cross-sectional correlation design

Gorakhpur city and Reotipur village located in Utter Pradesh

To investigate the patterns of intergenerational relations (social support, social relations, and autonomy) in Indian family and its role on their subjective well-being (happiness)

Level of satisfaction has been found to be clearly correlated with the level of perceived social support, social relations, and autonomy

Ugargol & Bailey, 2021 [5]

Reciprocity between older adults and their caregivers in emigrant households of Kerala, India

Qualitative study: semi-structured in-depth interview and observations

Kottayam district of Kerala, a southern Indian coastal state

To examine how left-behind older adults and their family caregivers recognise, interpret, and give meaning to reciprocal exchanges, expectations, and obligations in their care relationship

Non-reciprocity in the exchange relationship threatened the relationship and often led to frustrations and friction between the older adult and the caregivers, thus compromising the wellbeing

Mishra & Kaur, 2021 [29]

Gender imbalance, marriage squeeze, and multiple biological clocks: exploring challenges to the intergenerational contract in North India

Qualitative methods: ethnographic fieldwork-semi-structured interviews

Five villages of Sonipat and Hisar districts of Haryana

To explore the changes in the relationship between matured unmarried sons and their ageing parents

The essence of intergenerational contract is that parents are obligated to invest in the upbringing, education, and well-being of their children. In turn, children are expected to return the favour by taking care of their parents as they grow older and become dependent

Gangopadhyay & Samanta, 2017 [49]

Family matters: ageing and the intergenerational social contract in urban Ahmedabad, Gujarat

In-depth qualitative interviews and observations

The city of Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India

To understand the complex interactions of family and intergenerational relationships in an emerging city in India

Though family cohesion was maintained in intergenerational relationships, ambivalence too surfaced as an emotional dimension

Ungar & Mahalingam, 2003 [50]

‘We're not speaking any more’: a cross-cultural study of intergenerational cut-offs

Mixed-methods approach: survey methodology, focus groups

Silver Innings Foundation and Non-Resident Indian Parent Association (NRIPA) in Bengaluru and Mumbai, India

To investigate the type of support exchanges between generations and the role of communication technology in this process

Transnational care is reciprocal in nature, and that communication technology has enhanced intergenerational contact

Bawdekar & Ladusingh, 2012 [51]

Intergenerational time and monetary support among urban Indian families

Quantitative survey data: two-stage least square (2SLS) regression analysis

One-hundred sixty-two wards in the Pune Municipal Corporation

To examine the nature and pattern of time transfers between co-residing and non-co-residing parents and their adult married children in an urban setting in India

Time support is more frequent and intense when parents reside in the same city, whereas monetary transfers dominate when parents reside in a distant city or village