Table 2 Summary of studies published on health outcomes of waterpipe tobacco smoking
ID | Study | Design | Outcome(s) | Reported effect size (95% CI) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Cancers | ||||
1. | Al-Awwad, 2021 [12] | Case control | Pancreatic cancer | OR = 0.65 (0.21, 1.67) |
2. | Alharbi, 2018 [13] | Case control | Oral squamous cell carcinoma | OR = 53.16 (0.11, 76.77) aOR = 3.96 (0.24, 63.38) |
3. | Collatuzzo, 2024 [14] | Case control | Colorectal cancer | aOR = 1.2 (0.9, 1.5) |
4. | Collatuzzo, 2024 [14] | Case control | Colon cancer | aOR = 1.2 (0.8, 1.5) |
5. | Collatuzzo, 2024 [14] | Case control | Rectum cancer | aOR = 1.2 (0.9, 1.7) |
6. | Dwivedi, 2014 [15] | Case control | Prostate cancer | OR = 1.40 (0.50, 3.94) |
7. | Feng, 2009 [16] | Case control | Nasopharyngeal cancer | OR = 0.49 (0.20, 1.23) |
8. | Hosseini, 2010 [17] | Case control | Prostate cancer | OR = 7.0 (0.9, 56.9) |
9. | Khlifi, 2013 [18] | Case control | Head and neck cancer | aOR = 2.73 (1.65, 4.41) |
10. | Nguyen, 2023 [19] | Cohort | Nasopharyngeal cancer | aHR = 3.58 (1.32, 9.71) |
11. | Quadri, 2015 [20] | Case control | Oral cancers | aOR = 4.20 (1.32, 13.34) |
12. | Vora, 2019 [21] | Cross-sectional | Oral precancerous lesion | aOR = 3.50 (0.50, 27.40) |
Hematologic section | ||||
13. | Masoudkabir, 2024 [22] | Cross-sectional | Hyperlipidemia | OR = 0.82 (0.65, 1.04) |
14. | Mohammed, 2025 [23] | Cross-sectional | Hematocrit | MD = 3.90 (1.20, 6.60) |
ENT section | ||||
15. | Kakaje, 2020 [24] | Cross-sectional | Reflux symptoms index | OR = 1.30 (0.91, 1.84) |
Gastrointestinal section | ||||
16. | Al Saadi, 2016 [25] | Cross-sectional | GERD | NA |
Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) | NA | |||
17. | Chatila, 2017 [26] | Cross-sectional | Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) | aOR = 1.63 (1.04, 2.60) |
18. | Etemadi, 2017 [27] | Cross-sectional | Any reflux | aOR = 1.07 (0.96, 1.20) |
Severe reflux | aOR = 1.14 (0.99, 1.32) | |||
Frequent reflux | aOR = 1.18 (1.03, 1.36) | |||
Severe and frequent reflux | aOR = 1.27 (1.04, 1.55) | |||
19. | Islami, 2014 [28] | Cross-sectional | Severe symptoms of GERD | aOR = 1.34 (1.02, 1.75) |
Daily symptoms of GERD | aOR = 1.19 (0.92, 1.54) | |||
Any GERD symptom | aOR = 1.26 (1.01, 1.56) | |||
Mental health section | ||||
20. | Abu-Samak, 2019 [29] | Cross-sectional | Stress | |
21. | Goodwin, 2014 [30] | Cross-sectional | Anxiety disorder | OR = 0.78 (0.48, 1.25) |
Substance dependence | OR = 1.08 (0.31, 3.71) | |||
Average stress | OR = 1.31 (0.76, 2.23) | |||
Greater than average tremendous stress | OR = 1.22 (0.72, 2.06) | |||
22. | Grinberg, 2015 [31] | Cross-sectional | Stress | MD = 0.57 (− 3.10, 4.24) |
23. | Hallit, 2019 [32] | Cross-sectional | Stress score | MD = − 2.58 (− 4.48, − 0.68) |
24. | Hawari, 2019 [33] | Cross-sectional | General health | NA |
Physical health | NA | |||
Social health | NA | |||
Mental health | NA | |||
25. | Nabhan, 2023 [34] | Cross-sectional | Poor sleep quality | OR = 7.89 (1.91, 32.57) |
26. | Primack, 2013 [35] | Cross-sectional | Anxiety | OR = 1.2 (1.1, 1.3) aOR = 1.3 (1.2, 1.4) |
Sleeping disorder | OR = 1.5 (1.3, 1.6) aOR = 1.5 (1.4, 1.7) | |||
Eating disorder | OR = 1.6 (1.3, 1.8) aOR = 1.7 (1.4, 1.9) | |||
Attention-deficit disorder | OR = 1.8 (1.6, 1.9) aOR = 1.7 (1.5, 1.8) | |||
Attention disorder | OR = 2.5 (2.2, 2.9) aOR = 2.4 (2.0, 2.8) | |||
Tremendous stress | OR = 1.0 (0.9, 1.1) aOR = 1.1 (1.02, 1.2) | |||
Overall health fair or poor | OR = 1.3 (1.2, 1.4) aOR = 1.4 (1.2, 1.5) | |||
Severely inadequate sleep | OR = 1.05 (0.99, 1.1) aOR = 1.08 (1.02, 1.14) | |||
27. | Ramji, 2018 [36] | Cross-sectional | Stress | MD = 0.78 (0.48, 1.08) SD = 0.15 |
Sleep quality | MD = − 0.57 (− 0.85, − 0.29) SD = 0.14 | |||
28. | Tavafian, 2009 [37] | Cross-sectional | Mental component summary | OR = 1.88 (1.36, 2.60) |
Physical component summary | OR = 2.15 (1.56, 2.96) | |||
General health | MD = − 6.30 (− 9.45, − 3.15) SD = 1.61 | |||
Mental health | MD = − 6.70 (− 9.33, − 4.07) SD = 1.34 | |||
Social function | MD = − 5.00 (− 7.94, − 2.06) SD = 1.50 | |||
Mortality section | ||||
29. | Etemadi, 2017 [27] | Cohort | Mortality from respiratory disease | aHR = 0.40 (0.05, 3.15) |
30. | Wu, 2013 [38] | Cohort | Mortality from stroke | aHR = 0.91 (0.56, 1.46) |
Musculoskeletal section | ||||
31. | Hemmati, 2021 [39] | Cross-sectional | Osteopenia | OR = 1.85 (0.30, 19.68) |
Osteoporosis | OR = 1.31 (0.93, 18.30) | |||
32. | Tajvar, 2023 [40] | Cross-sectional | Musculoskeletal disorders in neck | OR = 1.54 (0.98, 2.41) |
33. | Tajvar, 2023 [40] | Cross-sectional | Musculoskeletal disorders in shoulder | OR = 1.38 (0.86, 2.22) |
34. | Tajvar, 2023 [40] | Cross-sectional | Musculoskeletal disorders in elbow | OR = 1.49 (0.96, 2.31) |
35. | Tajvar, 2023 [40] | Cross-sectional | Musculoskeletal disorders in hand and wrist | OR = 0.95 (0.61, 1.47) |
36. | Tajvar, 2023 [40] | Cross-sectional | Musculoskeletal disorders in upper back | OR = 1.52 (0.93, 2.47) |
37. | Tajvar, 2023 [40] | Cross-sectional | Musculoskeletal disorders in lower back | OR = 2.23 (1.27, 3.90) |
38. | Tajvar, 2023 [40] | Cross-sectional | Musculoskeletal disorders in hip | OR = 1.32 (0.86, 2.04) |
39. | Tajvar, 2023 [40] | Cross-sectional | Musculoskeletal disorders in knee | OR = 1.90 (1.17, 3.10) |
40. | Tajvar, 2023 [40] | Cross-sectional | Musculoskeletal disorders in feet/ankles | OR = 1.08 (0.70, 1.66) |
41. | Valeh, 2020 [41] | Cross-sectional | Osteoporosis | PR = 1.14 (0.79, 1.63) |
Prenatal outcomes | ||||
42. | Eftekhar, 2007 [42] | Case control | Intrauterine growth retardation | OR = 3.50 (1.10, 12.60) |
43. | El-Shahawy, 2021 [43] | Cohort | Low birth weight and/or preterm birth | OR = 9.55 (2.17, 42.00) |
44. | Lotfi, 2018 [44] | Case control | Gestational diabetes mellitus | OR = 3.30 (1.06, 10.40) |
45. | Tamim, 2008 [45] | Cohort | Gestational diabetes mellitus | OR = 0.8 (0.3, 2.1) |
Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy | OR = 0.9 (0.4, 2.3) | |||
Preterm delivery | OR = 1.4 (0.8, 2.5) | |||
Small for gestational age | OR = 0.8 (0.5, 1.3) | |||
Respiratory section | ||||
46. | Akiki, 2021 [46] | Cross-sectional | Physician-diagnosed asthma | aOR = 0.17 (0.04, 0.67) |
47. | Boskabady, 2014 [47] | Cross-sectional | Tightness | NA |
48. | Hawari, 2019 [33] | Cross-sectional | Episode of cough and phlegm lasting more than 3 weeks | NA |
Phlegm during day or night | NA | |||
Phlegm when you wake up | NA | |||
Shortness of breath when walking fast | NA | |||
Shortness of breath while active | NA | |||
49. | Hill Rice, 2019 [48] | Cross-sectional | Frequent sore throats (> 2/year) | OR = 1.18 (0.67, 2.08) |
Frequent colds (> 2/year) | OR = 1.54 (0.94, 2.54) | |||
50. | She, 2014 [49] | Cross-sectional | Abnormal lung function | OR = 7.15 (4.61, 11.10) |
51. | Wake, 2009 [50] | Cross-sectional | Physician diagnosed respiratory disease | aOR = 1.95 (0.99, 4.05) |
Periodontal section | ||||
52. | Abdu, 2023 [51] | Cross-sectional | Gingivitis | OR = 0.27 (0.06, 1.25) |
Periodontitis stage I | OR = 1.02 (0.30, 3.44) | |||
Periodontitis stage II | OR = 2.99 (0.96, 9.33) | |||
Periodontitis stage III | OR = 2.43 (0.28, 21.37) | |||
Periodontitis stage IV | OR = 1.71 (0.09, 33.40) | |||
53. | Al Kawas, 2021 [52] | Case control | Periodontitis (no/mild) | NA |
Periodontitis (moderate/severe) | NA | |||
54. | Baljoon, 2003 [53] | Cross-sectional | Periodontal disease | OR = 2.90 (1.20, 7.00) |