Table 2 Relevant study characteristics
From: Associations between nature exposure, screen use, and parent-child relations: a scoping review
Qualitative research papers | |||||
ID, Domain | Study Characteristics | Primary research aims | Relevant constructs | Relevant results | |
(Abdullah et al., 2022) [64] Social Sciences, Education | Qualitative; FG interviews, Maldives, children from public schools across 7 island environments: [11, 12] years, 56%♀, n = 34 | Exploring contextual factors that influence nature experiences among 11-12 year-old children in their local island environments in the Maldives | Children’s nature experiences: children’s perspectives on opportunity/orientation related factors (C-IQs) | • Children’s nature experiences influenced by 4 contextual factors: preferences, opportunities, constraints & freedom • Although many children chose routine screen-based pastimes, nature-based activities were preferred whilst children were in nature places • Perceived constraints (i.e., parental restrictions) deter use of available opportunities, regardless of residential location | |
Preference for screen-based activities (results) | |||||
Influence of family/parents (P-IQs/ results) | |||||
(Ceylan, M. 2018) [69] Social Sciences, Education | Qualitative; interviews, Turkey, parents who attended nature activities [30–59] years 36%♀, n = 50 & their children [8–13] years n = 70 | Identify barriers to engaging parents & children in nature-activities, gather parental perspectives around benefits of nature & examine children’s preferences for electronic or nature-based activities | PS time in nature/ barriers to access nature/perceived benefits of nature on child development (P-IQ)/ preference for nature vs playing with tablet/computer/phone (C-IQ) | • Parents desire to spend more time in nature activities with their children however describe barriers associated with: distance, cost, work fatigue, safety concerns, lack of “nature specialists.” • Positive impacts of nature activities on individual & relational health perceived by parents • Parents perceived influence of nature exposure & ST as contrasting • Children preferred nature activities yet viewed screen use as “compulsory.” | |
As above | |||||
Focus on family nature visits/parent & child views on family nature engagement (results) | |||||
(Kawas et al., 2021) [66] Computer Science | Qualitative; interviews & in-App audio recordings, US, Parents (n = 15) & their tween children [8–12] years, 52%♀, n = 23 (15 families) | Examining parents’ & tweens’ shared experiences using the “Nature Collections” App (NCApp) in facilitating engagement with outdoor exploration during a tweens transitional stage of technology use | Joint family nature-based explorations during NCApp (objective in-App audio sampling of interactions & parent-reports) | • Key themes: Family experiences of tweens’ App use during nature exploration/ concerns & tensions around tweens use of technology more broadly during transitional developmental period • NCApp engaged parents & tweens in positive shared nature experiences • NCApp provided tweens with opportunity to negotiate autonomy in natural spaces however this was impacted by geographical limitations • Parents reported they would make exceptions to ST limits with technology that facilitates social family interactions & time outdoors promoting NC | |
Transitional tech use/ parents’ ST rule | |||||
Family joint media engagement & experiences of technology: parent & child reflections on family experiences (using the App & generally) | |||||
(Om et al., 2021) [70] Computer Science | Qualitative; interviews/workshops, South Asia, Parents (n = 11) adults, 82%♀ & their children (7-8 years, n = 12) 67%♀ | To investigate existing routines around nature for urban children & explore design of technologies to enhance children’s engagement with nature | P-IQs: perspectives on children’s outdoor activities/children’s workshops: perspectives on outdoor time & preferences around nature | • Children in Bhutan mostly visit nature with their families • Children shared positive views around the social, imaginative, stimulating, interactive & sensory experiences of outdoor play • Technologies have the potential to enhance nature engagement • Screen-based devices can be disruptive to children’s immersive & social experiences in nature | |
Technology explored as possible facilitator to children’s nature exposure (aim) | |||||
Parental perspectives/role of family | |||||
(Rios & Menezes., 2017) [71], Education | Qualitative; Participatory FGs, Portugal, Children from four Portuguese schools [5 – 10 years] 45%♀, n = 31 | Explore children’s environmental views, including learning about nature, perceived environmental problems & possible solutions | Children’s environmental views/ environmental education | • Experiences with family, community, schools & the media (news & children’s TV programs) were reported sources of learning about nature & environmental awareness shaping children’s environmental concerns • Children’s descriptions of experiences involving pro-environmental behaviors were situated within family contexts | |
Learning about nature vicariously through media | |||||
Family-based experiences & interactions | |||||
(Ruckert et al., 2024) [72], Multidisciplinary | Qualitative; Questionnaire, US, parents of children aged 9 & 10 (82%♀, n = 49) | Investigate nature experiences shared between parents & children, with a focus on interactions with animals | Parent-child interactions in nature/ parent-child animal encounters | • Parents reported child/family animal encounters involving digitally mediated vicarious experiences were common, often linked to direct animal encounters, & engaged children’s interests & care for animals • Family experiences with nature provided a range of psychosocial experiences & benefits for parents and children | |
Vicarious (digitally mediated) nature experiences | |||||
Relational family bonding/ experiences involving caregiver influence in child-nature relationships | |||||
(Skinner et al., 2023) [73], Education | Qualitative; Online research instrument, Ireland, mothers [29 – 56 years] of children aged 2 – 19, Gender NP | Investigate the impact of home-schooling on working parents, family & school relationships during the Pandemic lockdown to identify useful parental coping strategies & generate future recommendations | Creativity in nature as a family experience/ family-based outdoor learning | • Parents reported that outdoor learning experiences with their children were therapeutic • Reported benefits to outdoor learning included: exercise, stimulating children’s creative, imaginative & autonomous play, opportunities for learning without screens, as well as connection to/appreciation for nature • Parents reported that children’s preferences for screen-based activities were both challenging to navigate & motivated parents to prioritize outdoor activities | |
Parental screen management/ screen related challenges and concerns | |||||
Parental experiences of home-schooling during the Pandemic lockdown—including perceived challenges, parental roles & family dynamics | |||||
Mixed-methods research papers | |||||
ID, Domain | Study Characteristics | Primary Aims | Relevant constructs | Relevant measures | Relevant results |
(Griffin et al., 2024) [68], Primary care | Mixed methods; US, pilot intervention study, pre-post surveys: parents of 4—9 year olds (91%♀, n = 22) & qualitative interviews with pediatric providers (80%♀, n = 4) & parent subset (70%♀, n = 10) | To develop & pilot test a primary care-based family-centered behavioral intervention to pro- mote outdoor active play in 4 –10 year old children | Intervention to promote active outdoor nature play/ parental perceptions/ screen-related barriers & family-level facilitators to active outdoor nature play | EV: Parent resources to promote outdoor nature play for children/ age-appropriate nature toy for children OV: Provider & parent perceptions around feasibility, acceptability & preliminary efficacy of program following administration in pediatric clinic/ pre-post parent-child engagement in outdoor PA | • Development (providers): ST as potential barrier/ parental encouragement as facilitator • Feedback (parents): clearer instructions & recommendations for parents, promote outdoor play as alternative for ST to children • No statistically significant pre-post changes in PA and outdoor time |
(Hackett et al., 2021) [67] Health Professions, Social Sciences | Mixed methods; pre-post-program survey, US, parent/guardian & child pairs, trios & families from various Milwaukee neighborhoods & surrounds. n = 22; youth [8–16] years, adults [18–60] years, 88%♀ | Investigating a pilot program to encourage nature-based activity among urban youth & families through environmental education & mentorship | Nature-based outdoor recreation programs/ perceptions around outdoor nature engagement | EV: Joint participation in Nature Mentors programs. OV: Efficacy of programs. Quant: outdoor skills self-efficacy/ weekly program evaluations. Qual IQs: programs features & beliefs around nature engagement | • Perceived barriers included contextual/ environmental factors (e.g., safety & proximity) & attitudes/perceptions (norms, outdoor skills self-efficacy, habitual intentions towards screen-based activities) • Children’s preferences shifted from indoor screen-based to nature-based family activities • Participants perceived program as beneficial for relational wellbeing |
Screen-based activities | Identified within children’s “intention” theme | ||||
Family-based program /parent & child barriers to nature engagement | Relational program focus/ perceived barriers included contextual & parent-child level factors (i.e., attitudes & norms around nature, outdoor skills self-efficacy) | ||||
(Kaymaz et al., 2017) [74] Medicine | Mixed-methods; parent surveys/ draw & write surveys (children)/field observations in parks & neighborhoods, Turkey, children [6–12] years (n = 418) & their parents (17% ♀, n = 383) | Investigation into children’s outdoor leisure trends & factors that influence use of urban green spaces in Cayyolu neighborhood of Ankara in Turkey | Factors that influence children’s GS use | EVs: Demographic factors. DVs: PQ: Parental leisure tendencies (including GS/outdoor items) & perceptions around children’s use of outdoor environments. Child surveys: ideal outdoor environments. Field Obs: activity type/duration/engagement | • Interaction was observed between park visiting patterns of parents & children • Perceived benefits of outdoor time, safety concerns & design characteristics affected parents influence on children’s use of GSs • EVs did not influence use of GS • Watching TV was the most preferred leisure-time activity for children • Most children preferred playing with playground equipment when in GS/ parents perceived these facilities as unsatisfactory |
Use of TV &PC | Response options for children’s preferred leisure time activities | ||||
Parents & children’s outdoor leisure trends/ parental perceptions | Parental perceptions towards children’s use of natural spaces/relationships between parents & children’s outdoor leisure trends | ||||
(Nielsen et al., 2021) [75] Environmental Science, Medicine | Mixed-methods; FG interviews/questionnaire, Denmark, children from 5-8 grade at Danish schools [11–15] years, 59%♀ (interview sample n = 34, questionnaire n = 1148) | Investigating influence of smartphone use on children’s outdoor experiences | Access & availability of nature/ children’s outdoor experiences | Building density of school/Qs related to nature places & activities/ Children’s perspectives on their outdoor time & preferences around nature | • Children highly dependent on smartphones outdoors/ dependence increases with age • Smartphones can facilitate outdoor experiences through children’s & parents’ sense of safety, children’s social connectedness & opportunities to enhance their outdoor experiences |
Children’s smartphone use | Children’s Qs: children’s dependency on/use of smartphones when outdoors | ||||
Smartphones to facilitate family contact | Identified theme: smartphone to connect with parents when outdoors | ||||
(Skar et al., 2016) [76] Health Professions, Social Sciences | Mixed-methods; online survey containing open ended Q, Norway, parents of children aged 6 –12 years (children: 48.6%♀), n = 3160 | To identify & explore barriers for children’s engagement with nearby nature | Children’s use of nearby nature & green areas | Parent-report barriers/facilitators to child use of nearby nature & green areas (prescribed categories/ open ended Q) | • Social barriers (e.g., family schedule, parent attitudes) more salient than physical barriers (e.g., access) to children’s use of nature • Child-related barriers included preference for indoor screen-based activities • Higher barriers perceived for boys/ older children |
Child SU influences outdoor time | Prescribed barrier category (quant)/ identified theme (qual results) | ||||
Influence of parent-level factors | Parental perceptions: barriers to children’s NE/ parent factors influencing children’s nature engagement | ||||
(Waite et al., 2021) [77] | Mixed methods; quant: survey of local providers of outdoor activities, qual: stakeholder & provider interviews & CYP focus groups, UK, Stakeholders, providers, children from low-income families (FG: [8–20] years, n = NP). One FG: CYPs with learning difficulties | Exploration of existing access, barriers & potential facilitators to children & CYP from disadvantaged backgrounds to engage in natural environment activities | Definitions of nature as socio-culturally constructed/outdoor activity providers/CYP participation in natural environment activities | Participants allowed to elicit own meanings for nature concepts/ providers: environmental organizations, community groups, independent outdoor adventure & education providers: types & features of nature engagement programs/ constraints to CYP participation (qual results) | • Programs vary in the ways they facilitated family nature engagement • Definitions of the natural environment shaped by program focus (some providers perceived nature-based programs as opportunity to escape from screen-heavy lifestyle) • Socio-cultural factors identified as obstacles to engagement (e.g., social judgment) • CYP’s willingness to engage in nature-based activities depended on individual/family factors |
Preference for screen-based activities | Identified as CYP barrier to engagement with natural environments | ||||
Intergenerational/ family influences | Influence of family factors on CYP nature participation (across key themes) | ||||
Quantitative | |||||
ID, Domain | Study Characteristics | Primary aims | Relevant Independent Variables | Relevant Outcome(s) | Relevant results |
(Aggio et al., 2015) [78] Medicine | Cross-sectional; interviews, Scotland, mother-report child data: Sweep 6 Growing up in Scotland study (children [M = 5.9 years], 49%♀, n = 3657) | Investigate the association between child’s screen time & mothers’ perception of distance from home to green/ open spaces (GS) | EV: Mothers’ perceived proximity to GS (walking distance from home/minutes) CV: Parent supervised park/playground visits, frequency of outdoor play (occasions p/wk) | DV: Child use of TV & computers (including laptops & gaming consoles) (weekly frequency & duration) | • Further distance to GS = higher child TV viewing (no association with computer use), worse mental health, less frequent PS park visits, lower general health rating & lower SES • No difference = frequency outdoor play & GS distance • Frequency of PS park visits did not alter association between GS & TV viewing |
(Dunton et al., 2012) [79] Medicine, Social Sciences | EMA, US, children in 4—8th grade living in Chino California/ surrounding communities, subgroup from Healthy PLACES trial, [9–13] years, 48%♀, n = 97 | Using mobile-based Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) to describe physical & social contexts of children’s PA behaviors | Current activity (various screen-based response options provided), social company (alone or with parents/ family/ friends), physical location (different outdoor contexts) & contextual factors (e.g., level of vegetation, perceived safety) | Children’s frequency of PA across different social/ environmental contexts | • Only EMA entries reporting PA included in final analysis (indoor sedentary activities not reported) • Children’s PA took place most often with friends & family, or family members only • Age, BMI, income, & ethnic differences in PA contexts were observed • Majority of children’s outdoor PA occurred where children reported higher greenery, no traffic, & felt safe |
(Ernst. J., 2018) [65] Arts & Humanities, Business Management & Accounting, Social Sciences | Post-test-only evaluation design; program description matrix & parent/guardian questionnaire, US, parents & guardians from nature play programs (21 zoo & aquarium sites) n = 210 (mothers 59.6%, fathers 20.7%, grandparents 7.3%, other 12.4%) | Investigating the influence of various nature-based programs on encouraging family participation in nature-based recreation & overcoming perceived barriers to spending time in nature | EV: Family engagement in nature-play programs (variations across program characteristics: structure, setting, role of parents/ family). PVs/Antecedent OVs: impact of participation on beliefs, attitudes, self-efficacy & strength of barriers (including “difficulty getting my family to unplug from technology”) | OV: Intention towards future family participation in nature-based recreation | • Site-level programs were collectively effective in strengthening motivations towards family engagement in nature-based recreation & decreasing perceived barriers (including technology-related) • Perceptions of program effectiveness & strength of barriers varied based on prior participation in nature-based recreation (program appearing more effective for families who were frequently spending time in nature) • Families who did not already spend frequent time in nature perceived every barrier as significantly stronger |
(Keith et al., 2022) [80] Environmental Science, Social Science | Cross-sectional; questionnaire, Australia, CYP from 5-8 grade at Sydney schools [8–14] years, 55%♀ (all CYP n = 1037; 8—12 years n = 588) | Evaluate predictors of NC & investigate effects of NC & environmental self-identity on urban children’s conservation behaviors | PVs: DNEs (frequency of visits to green & blue spaces/ frequency of nature-focused activities/ participation in outdoor recreation)/ learning about nature (including screen-based learning via television and internet)/ household biodiversity/ local greenness/ population density/ local blueness), NC, environmental self-identity | OV: Conservation behaviors (willingness to conserve nature/ frequency of environmentally responsible behaviors), NC | • NC = large effect on conservation behaviors, mediated by environmental self-identity • Time spent in green & blue spaces = weak direct effect on NC, mediated by engagement with nature-focused activities (strongest predictors of NC alongside frequency of outdoor learning & reading about nature) • Using internet to learn about nature = weakest relationship with NC |
(Lu et al., 2020) [81] Health Professions, Medicine | Cross-sectional; questionnaire & ActiGraph accelerometry, China, preschool children in urban area of Tianjin, China, PATH-CC Study, children [3–6] years (all children n = 980, Actigraph subgroup n = 134) & families (mothers 71%, fathers 21%, grandparents 8%) | Exploring correlates between home & neighborhood environmental characteristics with preschooler’s sedentary behavior (SB) & physical activity (PA) | EVs: Neighborhood characteristics (e.g., distance/ frequency of going to outdoor PA facilities, environmental quality, social support)/ home characteristics (e.g., grandparent as primary caregiver, presence of garden, TV & computers in child’s bedroom/house)/children’s outdoor play/parent-supervised visits to PA facilities | OVs: Sedentary time & PA (objective measure: accelerometry & parent-report questionnaire: daily frequency/duration) | • Children’s outdoor play correlated with lower sedentary time & higher PA/ access to home media equipment was associated with higher levels of leisure-time SB in children/ grandparents as key caregivers correlated with higher sedentary time + SB & lower PA in children • No correlation found between environmental accessibility & outcomes however indirect associations observed between distance to PA facilities & children’s PA outcomes, through increased frequency of parent-supported visits to PA facilities & child’s outdoor play • Social support associated with children spending more time in outdoor play & going to PA facilities more often |
(Rosen et al., 2021) [82] Multidisciplinary | Longitudinal; survey, US, children from younger sub-sample (T1 n = 68 [53%♀], T2 n = 53) & their caregivers | Investigating predictors of child psychopathology during the Pandemic & exploration of protective factors that may buffer against Pandemic related stressors | Protective factors: time spent in natural green spaces (days p/wk), passive ST & news consumption (hrs p/d), family routine & coping strategies (including family support-seeking)/ Pandemic-related stressors: various family-related factors (health, social, financial, home environment) | Internalizing & externalizing psychopathology (child) | • Structured family routine, less passive ST, lower exposure to news media & more time in nature associated with better mental health outcomes in CYP • Children with higher ST showed strong positive associations between pandemic-related stressors & both concurrent/ prospective psychopathology • The strong association between pandemic-related stressors & psychopathology was absent for children with lower ST & news media consumption |
(Schoeppe et al., 2016) [83] Medicine | Cross-sectional; questionnaire, Belgium, Greece, Hungary, Germany, Norway, Children (n = 3300, [10–12] years, 51%♀) & parents (n = 2933, 83%♀), sample = UP4FUN study | Investigate associations between parent/child domain-specific PA & ST activities & determine whether associations are moderated by parent & child gender | PVs: Parent PA & ST variables included: TV & DVD viewing, computer & games console use (min p/d), joint outdoor activities with child (outdoors/outdoors in natural areas/outdoors in other green spaces such as in parks) | OVs: Child PA & ST variables (same as parents, however one measure of total outdoor leisure time) | • Maternal but not paternal modelling of healthy active behaviors (sport participation, outdoor activities & walking for transport) was associated with higher participation in these activities in children • Maternal & paternal modelling of TV, DVD, computer & games consoles was associated with higher screen-based activities in children • The influence of parental modelling appears to be stronger in parent–child pairs of the same gender |
(Sheldrake & Reiss., 2023) [84] Science education, Environmental education | Cross sectional; questionnaire, England, Children from primary schools across various regions of England (n = 679, [7–10] years, 52.6%♀) | Explore associations between children’s views around nature and different nature-related aspects of education and life | PVs: [5-point Likert responses] Children’s activities & engagement with nature (time in nature, living near nature, watching nature-related media, reading nature-based books, parental encouragement to spend time in nature)/ children’s nature views (same as OVs) | OVs: Appreciation of nature/ affinity towards animals/oneness & responsibility for nature/ interest in learning about nature/ aspirations towards nature-based careers | • Children expressed positive views concerning nature • Parental nature time encouragement = positively predicted children’s nature appreciation/ responsibility • Nature-related media = positively predicted interest in nature-based learning & responsibility for nature • Girls expressed more positive views about nature |
(Shyleyko et al., 2023) [85] Medicine, Pediatrics | Cross-sectional; survey, Canada, caregivers of CYPs (n = 210, [3–18 years], 48%♀) | To assess activity levels & role of built environment among overweight & obese CYPs referred to a pediatric weight management clinic | PVs: Risk factors for higher ST & lower PA (availability of electronic devices in bedroom/ daily ST/ perceived barriers to child’s PA/ frequency of walking or biking to various locations) | OV: Parental perceptions on children’s PA | • 55% of children had electronic devices in bedroom • Most children exceeded national ST recommendations (males & older children had more ST) • Although most respondents lived within 2 km of GS, it was the least common place for PA • No statistically significant differences for estimates of ST & PA across residential type, number of parents in the household, parental education or overweight parent |
(Soga et al., 2018) [51] Environmental Science, Social Sciences | Cross-sectional; questionnaire, Japan, grade 5/6 school children from 45 elementary schools in Tochigi, Japan, n = 5801). Gender NP | Investigating associations between frequency of children’s DNEs & NC, family members’ nature orientation, urbanization of school surrounds, time pressure & inclination towards screen media | Family members nature orientation (positive or negative attitudes towards nature-based activities)/ children’s nature relatedness/opportunity (degree of urbanization of school surrounding within 1-km radius of school)/inclination towards screen-based media: child time (min p/d) on various screen devices/ various family-level factors | Children’s DNEs: frequency (last month): visiting natural neighborhood spaces, touching wild plants & observing wildlife | • Frequency of children’s DNEs was significantly positively associated with individual nature relatedness & family members’ nature orientation • Inclination towards screen-based media was significantly positively associated with DNEs (contrary to hypothesis) • Degree of urbanization had significant negative influences on frequency of DNEs • Male children participated in nature-based activities more frequently |