Table 3 Summary of sub-group analysis of studies included in the meta-analysis on the prevalence and associated factors of TD among T2DM patients

By types of TD

 Subclinical hypothyroidism

11.87% (95% CI: 6.90, 16.84)

98.3%

 Hypothyroidism

7.75% (95% CI: 5.71, 9.79)

88.2%

 Subclinical hyperthyroidism

2.49% (95% CI: 0.73, 4.25)

83.4%

 Clinical hyperthyroidism

2.51% (95% CI: 1.89, 3.13)

0.00%

By study design

 Cross-sectional

19.40% (95% CI: 16.40, 22.40)

92.6%

 Cohort

22.41% (95% CI:15.82, 29.01)

91.3%

 Case control

20.55% (95% CI: 14.50, 26.60)

90.7%

 Retrospective

22.33% (95% CI: 4.34, 40.32)

95.8%

By continent

 Asia

21% (95% CI: 18.06, 23.94)

94.%

 Europe

21.30% (95% CI: 3.46, 39.13)

98.2%

 Africa

18.42% (95% CI: 12.46, 24.39)

86.8%

By year

 2006–2010

14.61% (95% CI: 7.31, 21.90)

72.2%

 2011–2015

20.24% (95% CI: 13.90, 26.58)

92.6%

 2016–2022

21.08% (95% CI: 17.84, 24.32)

94.0%